How does physical exercise influence self-efficacy in adolescents? A study based on the mediating role of psychological resilience | BMC Psychology

Physical exercise and self-efficacy in adolescents

Social Cognitive Theory was first proposed by Stanford University psychologist Albert Bandura [18]. This theory analyzes the social basis of thoughts and behaviors, emphasizing that individual behavior is influenced not only by personal factors but also by environmental and social factors [19]. In this framework, behavior, individuals, and the environment form a dynamic interactive relationship, where the intensity and pattern of interaction between any two factors vary depending on the specific behavior, individual characteristics, and environment. Bandura further expanded this theory, particularly in the context of health behaviors (including physical activity, healthy diet, etc.), by proposing a multidimensional causal model. He highlighted that individuals regulate their motivation and behavior through self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and perceived environmental supports and barriers [19].

Social Cognitive Theory provides a theoretical basis for understanding how physical exercise affects adolescents’ self-efficacy. During physical activities, adolescents not only experience improvements in physical health but also develop self-efficacy through their participation. As a tool for holistic development, physical exercise enhances adolescents’ self-awareness and promotes the development of their psychological, emotional, and social skills [20]. This is particularly important during adolescence, a stage of rapid physical and psychological growth, where shaping behavioral habits, developing emotional regulation, and understanding social roles significantly impact future quality of life [21, 22].

From a psychological perspective, physical exercise provides adolescents with diverse experiential contexts that help them develop positive self-perceptions [13, 24]. In these physical activities, adolescents often encounter challenging tasks such as improving physical skills, strategizing, or achieving team goals. Successfully completing these tasks not only provides immediate success experiences but also strengthens adolescents’ perception of their abilities [25]. Unlike standardized assessments in academic settings, the feedback mechanisms in physical exercise are more dynamic and flexible. This unique feedback process helps adolescents gain intense psychological stimulation through completing autonomous tasks and engaging in positive social interactions [26, 27].

Specifically, physical exercise promotes the enhancement of self-efficacy through multiple pathways. On one hand, the physiological benefits of exercise directly impact brain function. Research shows that exercise stimulates the secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which not only enhances cognitive function but also improves emotional regulation and stress management [28, 29]. These physiological effects provide foundational support for psychological development, enabling adolescents to perform better in emotional control and goal perseverance [30,31,32]. On the other hand, the practical contexts provided by physical activities offer valuable psychosocial resources. For example, team sports help adolescents learn to build trust through cooperation and competition, fostering their role identity within the team and enhancing their positive self-perception [33].

Additionally, the structured goals and feedback mechanisms inherent in physical exercise play a crucial role in strengthening individual beliefs. Achieving physical goals often requires adolescents to overcome setbacks and failures, which helps them develop stronger self-regulation strategies when facing challenges. Research indicates that by persistently completing tasks, adolescents gain a heightened sense of mastery, thereby enhancing their self-efficacy [23]. Furthermore, the challenges presented by physical exercise are not only physical but also psychological. These psychological challenges include focusing attention, maintaining perseverance, and rebuilding confidence after failure [34, 35]. These resilience factors are closely related to adolescents’ self-efficacy, helping them better cope with difficulties in physical exercise and develop stronger psychological resilience.

Based on the above analysis, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H1

There is a significant positive correlation between physical exercise and self-efficacy in adolescents.

Physical exercise and psychological resilience in adolescents

Positive Psychology Theory was proposed by Seligman in 1998 [36]. This theory focuses on the inherent positive qualities and strengths of humans, suggesting that psychology should focus on human’s latent constructive powers, virtues, and goodness, emphasizing the use of a positive mindset to understand psychological phenomena and issues. This, in turn, helps stimulate individuals’ inner positive forces, maximizing personal potential and enhancing happiness [37]. Within this theoretical framework, physical exercise, as a positive lifestyle choice, not only has a significant impact on physical health but also has profound effects on psychological development through various mechanisms [38, 39].

This is particularly important during adolescence, a critical stage of rapid physical and psychological growth, where young people face multiple challenges such as academic pressure, social challenges, and the formation of self-identity [40]. Physical exercise provides adolescents with a unique context, helping them effectively alleviate these pressures and fostering the development of key psychological traits. In recent years, psychological resilience, as a core ability to cope with pressure and adversity, has become an important area of focus in how physical exercise influences adolescent mental health [41, 42].

Psychological resilience is defined as the ability to adapt and recover when facing challenges and stress [13,14,15]. Physical exercise provides unique support for the development of this ability. In physical activities, adolescents face challenges not only related to physical fatigue but also emotional regulation, coping with failure, and enduring competitive pressure [43]. These challenges require adolescents to mobilize internal resources to cope, thus cultivating their adaptability and laying a solid foundation for dealing with more complex situations in the future. Research shows that participation in structured physical activities significantly reduces adolescents’ stress levels and improves their emotional regulation abilities when facing uncertainty [44]. Through repeated exposure to stress in physical exercise, adolescents learn various coping strategies, fostering a positive mindset towards challenges.

Physical exercise not only helps adolescents face failure but also provides experiences linked to success, deepening their understanding of the relationship between setbacks and growth [45]. For example, in team sports, adolescents learn to maintain patience, focus, and self-control under pressure, which are core elements of psychological resilience [46, 47]. Furthermore, the immediate feedback mechanisms in physical exercise further enhance adolescents’ positive self-assessment of their abilities, strengthening their adaptability and self-efficacy. This improved self-perception extends beyond physical activities to other areas such as academics, family, and social interactions [48].

From a physiological perspective, physical exercise provides a solid foundation for psychological resilience through its regulation of neural and biological mechanisms. Research has found that exercise promotes the secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), enhancing the functionality of neural pathways involved in emotional regulation [49, 50]. This not only improves adolescents’ immediate responses to stress but also provides support for the long-term accumulation of psychological resources. Additionally, physical activity helps regulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, reducing excessive stress responses and improving emotional recovery under pressure [51, 52]. These physiological mechanisms not only enhance adolescents’ immediate responses to short-term stress but also, by increasing brain plasticity, lay the foundation for the long-term development of psychological resilience.

Social support is another crucial pathway through which physical exercise promotes psychological resilience. During physical activities, adolescents gain a sense of belonging and support through interactions with peers and teams. This social experience enhances their sense of security when facing challenges [53]. Studies show that team sports not only improve individuals’ cooperation skills but also play a critical role in conflict management and trust-building, which are essential for the multidimensional development of adolescents’ psychological resilience [46, 47]. Through these processes, physical exercise goes beyond being a mere tool for physical fitness, becoming a comprehensive platform for cultivating psychological and social resources.

Based on the above analysis, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H2

There is a significant positive correlation between physical exercise and psychological resilience in adolescents.

Psychological resilience and self-efficacy in adolescents

Self-Determination Theory, proposed by American psychologists Deci and Ryan in the 1980s, emphasizes the autonomy of individual behavior and the motivational processes involved [54]. This theory suggests that whether an individual’s behavior is driven by intrinsic motivation largely determines the quality and sustainability of that behavior, with motivation being influenced by contextual and interpersonal factors [55]. Particularly during adolescence, when young people can experience a high degree of autonomy in physical exercise, this not only helps them improve their physical health but also promotes the development of psychological resilience, which in turn enhances self-efficacy. Physical exercise provides adolescents with a favorable environment that allows them to participate in self-directed activities, build confidence, and overcome challenges.

Psychological resilience is defined as the ability of individuals to effectively adapt and recover in the face of stress or adversity, and it is a core trait for maintaining mental health and fostering positive development in adolescents [14]. Adolescence is a critical period of physical and psychological development, during which young people experience multiple pressures from academic, family, and social environments. Psychological resilience provides them with the ability to cope with these pressures [56,57,58]. During this process, self-efficacy plays an important role. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to complete tasks and achieve goals, and research shows a strong relationship between psychological resilience and self-efficacy [9, 10]. Psychological resilience helps adolescents enhance their ability to cope with failure, and through emotional regulation stability, it provides a foundation for the development of positive self-perception [59].

Specifically, psychological resilience indirectly shapes adolescents’ positive self-evaluations by improving their ability to adapt to setbacks [60, 61]. For example, when adolescents face challenges, resilience enables them to mobilize internal resources, actively address problems, and find solutions under pressure. This process not only helps them regulate their emotions but also strengthens their confidence in their abilities through repeated successes [62]. Adolescents with higher levels of resilience often exhibit greater perseverance and goal-oriented behavior, traits that are closely associated with high levels of self-efficacy [63, 64].

Emotional regulation, a key component of psychological resilience, plays a crucial role in shaping self-efficacy [65, 66]. Effective emotional regulation allows adolescents to maintain a balanced mindset when facing failure or criticism, enabling them to focus on problem-solving and goal achievement [67]. For instance, when faced with setbacks in academic tasks, adolescents with higher resilience are more likely to adopt the mindset of “I can do better next time,” which helps boost their confidence in completing tasks [68, 69].

Social support is also a key factor in the relationship between psychological resilience and self-efficacy. In physical activities, adolescents gain emotional and practical support through interactions with peers, family, and teachers. This support effectively alleviates feelings of isolation in stressful situations and enhances adolescents’ sense of social role identity [52, 70, 71]. Research shows that team sports not only improve individuals’ cooperation skills but also enhance their conflict management and trust-building abilities, all of which are essential for the multidimensional development of psychological resilience [46, 47]. Therefore, physical exercise not only improves adolescents’ physical health but also, through mechanisms such as social support, emotional regulation, and teamwork, further promotes the development of their self-efficacy.

Based on the above analysis, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H3

There is a significant positive correlation between psychological resilience and self-efficacy in adolescents.

The mediating role of psychological resilience

The significant role of physical exercise in promoting the physical and mental health of adolescents has been widely acknowledged. Its impact extends beyond direct improvements in physical health to indirectly enhancing psychological traits through complex mechanisms [72]. Psychological resilience, as a critical adaptive resource, has recently been identified as a potential mediating mechanism through which physical exercise contributes to psychological development [73]. It may act as a bridge between physical exercise and self-efficacy in adolescents, explaining how physical activity indirectly influences self-perception by fostering internal psychological resources.

Research indicates that physical exercise enhances psychological resilience through various mechanisms. Adolescents frequently experience processes such as overcoming challenges, coping with failure, and adjusting goals during physical activities. These experiences directly reinforce their ability to adapt to adversity [74, 75]. Additionally, immediate feedback and success experiences during exercise bolster adolescents’ confidence in their abilities, further shaping their resilience to stress [76]. For instance, in team sports, adolescents develop emotional regulation skills and flexibility in addressing complex problems through competitive tasks and resolving collaborative conflicts, which are closely linked to the development of psychological resilience [77].

Psychological resilience supports the enhancement of self-efficacy through its core characteristics. From an emotional regulation perspective, resilience helps adolescents maintain stable emotional states in stressful situations. This stability allows them to focus on task objectives, thereby strengthening their confidence in completing tasks [78]. Studies have found that individuals with higher resilience are more likely to adopt proactive coping strategies, such as reevaluating problems or devising feasible solutions, which significantly enhance their self-evaluations [79]. Through this process, resilience not only mitigates the negative effects of stressful situations but also transforms these challenges into factors that enhance self-efficacy [80].

Further research suggests that psychological resilience can transfer the positive effects of physical exercise to other contexts, thereby broadly promoting adolescents’ psychological development [81]. The coping abilities and success experiences cultivated in physical activities extend through resilience to academic, social, and other domains, enabling adolescents to face challenges in these areas with greater confidence and adaptability [82]. For example, experiences of competition and collaboration in physical activities can strengthen social cognition, enhancing psychological resilience and, in turn, improving social role recognition, which indirectly boosts self-efficacy [83].

Based on the above analysis, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H4

Psychological resilience mediates the relationship between physical exercise and self-efficacy in adolescents.

Construction of an integrated theoretical hypothesis model

Based on the literature review and proposed hypotheses, this study constructs a theoretical hypothesis model, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The model aims to integrate existing research findings, optimize the relationships between hypotheses, and expand the theoretical framework for a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic.

Theoretical model of physical exercise and self-efficacy in adolescents: The mediating role of psychological resilience