The influence of environment on adolescents’ physical exercise behavior based on family community and school micro-systems

To realize the developmental objectives of the “Great Health” era, the Healthy China 2030 Planning Outline advocates for “the maintenance and protection of public health across all stages of life. “Under the “health priority” development paradigm, advancing health interventions becomes the most rational and cost-effective strategy to address the “window period” of adolescent sub-health. The physical fitness of adolescents stands as a cornerstone in building a strong sports nation and reflects the overall strength of the country, bearing significant implications for the nation’s future and the advancement of its ethnic groups. Consequently, it is a collective responsibility and an undeniable duty for society to ensure a robust and healthy reserve of young people’s physical fitness¹. However, due to the absence, misalignment, and displacement of physical education within families, communities, and schools, children and adolescents have not developed a strong sports awareness or engaged in regular exercise². This has led to insufficient physical activity levels and a continuous decline in physical fitness among Chinese children and adolescents, consequently creating a situation where the development of sports for children and adolescents remains lagging and there exists significant health inequality³.

In 2021, the State Council’s General Office emphasized the importance of integrating classroom instruction with extracurricular activities and engaging families, communities, and social organizations⁴. However, the lack of operational guidance in the document resulted in practical discrepancies. Research indicates that children and adolescents exhibit insufficient physical activity and sports awareness, with their physical fitness and health being less than optimal. This is primarily due to their limited independent exercise behaviors, which are influenced by both internal and external factors⁵. Given China’s current economic and social context, the primary factor influencing the level of physical activity is the national fitness environment⁶. The environment acts as a catalyst for action by reinforcing existing behavioral intentions. The immediate surroundings directly affect the exercise behavior of children and adolescents. Improvements in their environment lead to increased exercise behavior⁷. Consequently, the environment serves as a driving force for the development of youth physical fitness activities.

The theory of human adaptation to the environment posits that a match between humans and their surroundings enhances individual behavioral efficiency⁸. Focusing on the sports environment as a means to address the physical activity patterns of children and adolescents is a focal point in the realm of physical health, as well as an effective strategy to tackle health disparities among children and adolescents. Existing research has analyzed youth physical activity patterns not only through individual variables such as community environment, family capital, and school facilities, but also by exploring the sports environment from model construction, collaborative governance, and system innovation, offering theoretical and practical insights for further research. However, given that various sub-environments often exist separately yet coexist, each influencing children and adolescents based on their unique characteristics, a single-perspective approach can lead to isolated and incomplete outcomes. Moreover, discussions regarding the collaborative mechanisms among family, community, and school that influence youth physical activity are insufficient, necessitating a comprehensive examination of these factors. Drawing on data from the China Education Panel Study (CEPS), this paper employs the Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) to analyze the influence of familial, communal, and academic factors on adolescent physical activity, and explores potential mechanisms at play. Compared with previous studies, innovations are mainly made in the following aspects: (1) Starting from the dual structure of the internal and external education system, this paper explores the influence of family, community, and school on young people’s physical exercise behavior, not only examining the individual impact of environmental factors but also testing the moderating effects of different levels through hierarchical analysis; (2) This study utilizes large-scale longitudinal tracking data and employs a nested model to explain synergistic effects. The data is highly representative and comprehensive, enabling a more accurate reflection of the mechanisms at play within schools, communities, and families. Consequently, this study yields more reliable conclusions. It not only enriches the research on the relationship between young people’s physical exercise behavior and the environment, but also explores the mechanisms influencing young people’s physical exercise behavior from the perspectives of family, community, and school, thereby providing theoretical support for addressing disparities in young people’s physical health.

Literature review and research hypotheses

Bronfenbrenner was the pioneer in proposing the ecological systems theory, which underscores that individual growth and development are inherently influenced by environmental factors⁹. He posits that the environment possesses a nested structure, indicating that an individual’s development is situated within various levels of environmental systems. The theory categorizes an individual’s environmental system into four distinct levels: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem (see Fig. 1). The microsystem pertains to the immediate context of individual activities and interactions, representing the closest system with which individuals engage during their developmental process. For adolescents, their families, communities, and schools constitute the microsystems integral to their development¹⁰. Bronfenbrenner emphasized that relationships within the system are bidirectional, indicating that while adults and the environment shape the responses of children and adolescents, the key physiological attributes, personality, and abilities of these individuals also influence adult behavior and the environment. Ecosystem theory posits that positive interactions between microsystems can foster optimal individual development. Consequently, it is crucial to encourage these interactions to yield a lasting and positive influence on adolescents. The introduction of microsystems like family, community, and school offers theoretical tools for analyzing the behavioral mechanisms of adolescent physical exercise. This article will examine studies on adolescent physical exercise behavior from these three perspectives.

Microsystems-environment.

Family microsystem: family environment and adolescent physical exercise behavior

The family, as the primary agent for early socialization of adolescents, is the starting point for their physical activity behaviors, playing an irreplaceable role in guiding their health. Not only can it guide and support adolescents’ physical exercise behaviors from the levels of sports cognition and participation¹¹, but more importantly, it exerts a lasting impact on their physical exercise behaviors through intergenerational intervention¹². The family has been proven to be a positive predictor of physical activity in children and adolescents¹³, with parental encouragement, support, role models, and attitudes positively correlating with adolescents’ participation in sports activities. The family environment is the most influential microenvironment in the development of adolescents, alongside school, providing an environment that stimulates physical development, including being taught and learning basic skills¹⁴. Sports become an extension of family life and a part of family education. The family environment encompasses a variety of factors, including a family’s material conditions and social status, as well as the relationships, behavioral patterns, and emotional exchanges among family members¹⁵. In existing research, parents’ levels of education, the family’s economic status, and social class are often considered key indicators in measuring the family environment¹⁶. This study aims to explore the correlation between several key dimensions of the family environment, such as the harmony of family relationships, the educational levels of parents, and parent–child relationship, with adolescents’ participation in physical exercise. The theory of family social capital, as a vital tool for analyzing the family microsystem, posits parent–child relationships within the family as indicators for measuring family social capital, unveiling the essence of family social capital both conceptually and methodologically. It posits that the “strong connections” formed within parent–child relationships are the primary indicators for measuring family social capital¹⁷, whereas the integrity of the family structure merely represents a prerequisite for the construction of parent–child relationships. The research results show that the fundamental reason for the lack of family social capital is the neglect and structural absence of parents in the lives and education of their children. At the same time, Marjoribanks et al. defined the concept as the strength of the relationship between parents and children in the family based on this research, and used parental expectations and investment as measurement indicators¹⁵. Therefore, this study takes parent–child relationship as a factor to measure family social capital, and uses adolescents’ self-evaluation of parent–child relationship as a measurement method to detect its impact on adolescents’ physical fitness behavior. Some scholars have also synthesized previous research results and taken parental educational expectations as an indicator to measure family social capital¹⁸. This study believes that educational expectations, as the most important expectations of parents, have been embedded in family social capital and become an important measurement indicator. Therefore, parental educational expectations are taken as an important indicator to measure family environment in this study. Family social capital significantly influences adolescents’ engagement in physical activities by offering support, information, and opportunities. Research indicates that adolescents from families with larger social networks tend to exercise more frequently, and those with stronger parent–child relationships also show higher rates of physical activity¹⁹. The family sports atmosphere is particularly influential, with a high correlation to adolescents’ participation in sports, suggesting that multiple facets of family social capital positively impact adolescents’ involvement in sports activities²⁰.

Meanwhile, the educational level of parents positively and significantly influences the participation of adolescents in sports, which is also an important reason for the stratification of physical exercise²¹. The physical exercise behavior of adolescents is usually closely related to their parents’ occupation and educational level, and has a positive and positive impact²². Parents with higher educational levels have a deeper understanding of the importance of physical fitness and the health of their children, and play an important role in shaping their children’s attitudes, cognition, and value systems. The higher the educational level of parents, the better the accessibility and affordability of sports facilities, mainly manifested in providing positive experiences and support, and cultivating children’s lifelong interest in sports participation. Because when parents realize the importance of athletic ability, they will consciously increase outdoor time to cultivate exercise habits²³. Therefore, children whose parents have a high level of education are more likely to participate in sports activities in their leisure time. Moreover, well-educated parents are more likely to encourage their children to participate in organized sports activities, while parents with lower educational levels, in addition to affecting the family environment that adolescents are exposed to, are also constrained by unhealthy family beliefs²⁴. The research results show that the educational level of parents affects the social and physical characteristics of the family environment, and the influence of the family environment on exercise behavior tendency is its key root cause, with a continuous impact effect. Therefore, this study selects the highest educational level of parents as an important indicator to measure the family environment. Based on the existing research results, this paper proposes the following hypotheses:

• H1: Family environment has a significant positive impact on adolescent physical exercise behavior.

• H1a: Parent–child relationship has a significant positive impact on adolescent physical exercise behavior.

• H1b: Educational expectations have a significant positive impact on adolescent physical exercise behavior.

• H1c: The highest educational level of parents has a significant positive impact on the physical exercise behavior of adolescents.

Community microsystem: community environment and adolescent physical exercise behavior

The community serves as an extension of the family environment. As the fundamental unit of the city, it is the environment that children and adolescents interact with the most intimately, and it is also the primary venue for daily activities²⁵. The community offers diverse support and assistance in material and spiritual aspects, which, through its geographical, social mobilization, and resource integration strengths, positively influences the development of health behaviors among teenagers, thereby serving as an inexhaustible driving force for their physical fitness activities²⁶. Community environment refers to the integrated manifestation of natural and social conditions within and surrounding a community. It encompasses various aspects, including the natural environment, physical environment, social environment, and cultural environment, as well as safety considerations. These factors collectively influence the quality of life for residents. A positive community environment is crucial for promoting resident health, enhancing community cohesion, and increasing resident satisfaction. The flexibility and convenience of the community offer a platform for communication and relaxation in fitness activities, enhancing the accessibility to and participation in sports fitness activities among teenagers, and compensating for the deficiencies in family physical education. Research has indicated that the community sports environment positively impacts the physical exercise behaviors of teenagers⁷. As the most frequently used daily activity venues, the size of community fitness facilities positively influences the guidance of physical fitness behaviors among children and adolescents²⁷. Within the community spaces, interpersonal networks facilitate mutual support and services in terms of materials, resources, and psychology. Community activity venues reduce the distance between families and sports facilities, and the unstructured sports activities within the community enhance the participation rate of teenagers. Studies suggest that the community sports environment, including sports equipment and safety, enhances the value of teenagers’ sports activities and subtly influences their levels of activity during after-school and other non-school periods²⁸. However, participation in non-organized sports activities within the community may be influenced by socioeconomic status. The likelihood of children and adolescents participating in non-organized sports activities is related to their surrounding environment, such as family, community, and level of safety. Communities with higher socioeconomic status typically provide more sports facilities, while low-income communities face limitations in the affordability and accessibility of sports facilities. Therefore, as a gathering place of culture, the potential cultural atmosphere, humanistic support, educational support, and other factors in the community play a guiding role in supporting the behavior of children and adolescents²⁹. There is a complex dynamic relationship between the community environment and the physical exercise behavior of adolescents, and the construction of the humanistic environment in the community is particularly important for the development of healthy behaviors among children and adolescents. Firstly, communities with high levels of safety are positively correlated with spontaneous active play. The rules for active play in the community are more stringent, and a good community environment provides safety guarantees for active participation. Secondly, the availability of community recreational facilities is positively correlated with the participation of children and adolescents in sports, which has a positive impact on their participation in sports³⁰. It can be seen that the community environment that affects the physical fitness behavior of adolescents should also consider the social status, public security, community development, and humanistic environment of community residents. Therefore, this paper proposes the following hypotheses:

School microsystem: school environment and adolescent physical exercise behavior

The school environment encompasses the overall context in which students learn and engage in activities within the campus. Broadly speaking, the school environment refers to all elements that influence student growth and development, which can be broadly categorized into two major types: physical and psychological environments. The physical environment primarily includes aspects such as campus planning, the allocation of classrooms and laboratories, and the provision of sports facilities. The psychological environment, on the other hand, encompasses non-material factors such as the political atmosphere, academic ambiance, and the ethos and spirit of the school. The school environment has a subtle yet profound impact on the mental and physical development of students. Reproduction theorists believe that schools are places that produce class inequality. Educational sociological research has found that schools have a significant impact on the production of unequal educational outcomes. As a crucial spatial domain within microsystems, schools have a strong penetrative influence on the formation of adolescent physical exercise behavior, with an irreplaceable authority. Differences in school atmosphere and conditions may exert an influence independent of the family environment³¹. The school environment will serve as an inexhaustible source of motivation and power for enhancing adolescent health. The school sports environment plays a crucial role in stimulating students motivation to exercise and significantly impacts their level of physical activity participation. Research from environmental psychology indicates that both natural and social environments profoundly influence individual behavior. Consequently, having well-equipped sports facilities, fostering a positive sports atmosphere, and offering a variety of sports activities can effectively spark students enthusiasm for physical activity. Studies have shown that the school sports environment can positively predict adolescents exercise motivation and their engagement in physical activities³². Beyond directly promoting the adoption of a healthy lifestyle, the school sports environment also indirectly influences the formation of healthy habits by enhancing motivation for exercise and encouraging regular physical activity routines³³. The school sports atmosphere, which combines the spirit of sports with material resources, helps to develop students awareness and appreciation of physical activity.

The home–school relationship refers to the communication, exchange, and cooperation that occur during the educational process. A harmonious and healthy home–school relationship is an important part of the environment for teenagers’ growth, is an intrinsic requirement of education, and promotes the development of teenagers. Research shows that families who actively communicate with schools and teachers have a positive impact on students’ academic performance, while families who do not do so negatively affect their children’s academic performance³⁴. Variability in home–school communication can hinder students’ performance at school. Studies have suggested that parental involvement in school governance can improve student outcomes³⁵, with collaborative home–school interaction being conducive to developing adolescents’ sense of self-efficacy and mitigating the “disadvantages” associated with socioeconomic status³⁶. Students with a close home–school relationship outperform those with a distant one³⁷. Furthermore, a harmonious home–school relationship, serving as a stabilizer for students’ well-being, not only promotes academic achievement but also benefits students’ physical and mental health³⁸, positively impacting their academic and emotional development³⁹. Thus, the home–school relationship, as a micro representation of the school environment, plays a positive role in creating an educational environment, with a good home–school relationship being a safeguard for the development of healthy behaviors in teenagers.

Both Bourdieu’s exposition of the reproduction of the elite class and P. Willis’s discussion on the reproduction of the working class reveal the relationship between schools and educational outcomes and their impact on the shaping of individuals’ futures. However, due to geographical distribution differences and the proximity enrollment system, there is a disparity in the composition of school classes. Coupled with the persistent unequal distribution of educational resources between urban and rural areas, there are regional differences in the level of governance within schools³⁵. Studies have shown that the location of schools has a predictive effect on students’ academic performance⁴⁰. Therefore, the administrative level of the school may also be a factor influencing teenagers’ physical activity behavior.

School atmosphere is a critical component of the school environment, referring to the enduring and stable characteristics of the humanistic environment within a school that are collectively experienced or perceived by students and staff, exerting a profound influence on their psychological and behavioral patterns. As the central venue for adolescent social interaction, the behavioral patterns and psychological tendencies of peer groups in schools have a significant group contagion effect, markedly influencing adolescents’ consciousness and behavior. This effect spreads through interactions among peer groups, leading to the so-called “peer contagion.” Psychological research indicates that undesirable behaviors can be transmitted through group effects within school networks, subsequently affecting adolescents’ psychological states and behavioral patterns⁴¹. Driven by peer effects, a negative school atmosphere may persist within group networks and subtly influence adolescents’ psychological emotions and behavioral changes under the influence of conformity and group identity. The quality of the school atmosphere is directly related to the healthy growth of adolescents. A positive school atmosphere can promote the comprehensive development of students and stimulate their enthusiasm; in contrast, a negative atmosphere may lead to problematic behaviors among students. The school atmosphere also has a potential impact on adolescents’ physical fitness behaviors. Studies show that the campus atmosphere is a key factor affecting the mental health development of middle school students and has significant predictive power for students’ school performance. Moreover, the positive influence of the school atmosphere on youth physical exercise has been confirmed through cross-lagged analysis, indicating that optimizing the school atmosphere plays an active role in promoting youth physical exercise⁴². Therefore, the construction and maintenance of a positive school atmosphere are essential for the mental and physical health and the promotion of physical fitness behaviors among adolescents. In this study, due to limitations in data acquisition, the school atmosphere is defined by the frequency of occurrences such as fighting and other uncivilized behaviors within the school.

The Outline of the “Healthy China 2030” Plan points out the need to “ensure the allocation of sports venues and equipment in schools.” Social capital such as sports venues shows a direct correlation with sports behavior⁴³. School sports venues and facilities are the material basis for students’ physical exercise behavior, the guarantee for the survival and development of school sports, and the key to achieving quality education. With the high attention of national policies, the venues and equipment of primary and secondary schools have been significantly improved. However, due to uneven resource distribution, there are still urban–rural disparities, regional development imbalances, and other differences that restrict the development of primary and secondary school sports. Existing research has shown that teacher resources, venues and equipment, and regional imbalanced development have become difficulties that restrict the governance of school sports in the new era¹⁷. In addition, the requirements for the breadth and depth of physical education under the “double reduction” policy have further highlighted this issue, exacerbating the unfairness of school physical education and the inequality of student health. In summary, school environmental factors affect the development of adolescent physical exercise behavior. This article proposes the following hypothesis:

• H3: The school environment has a significant positive impact on adolescents’ physical exercise behavior.

• H3a: The home–school relationship has a significant positive impact on adolescents’ physical exercise behavior.

• H3b: The administrative level of the school has a significant positive impact on the physical exercise behavior of adolescents.

• H3c: The school atmosphere has a significant positive impact on adolescent physical exercise behavior.

• H3d: Sports facilities have a significant positive impact on adolescent physical exercise behavior.

Simultaneously, the influence of school environments on family environments is multidimensional and complex. By placing greater emphasis on physical activities and underscoring their pivotal role in students holistic development, schools effectively shape family attitudes and participation in sports. Research suggests that optimizing the school sports environment not only reinforces family support for physical activities but also enhances students core physical literacy⁴⁴. Moreover, the establishment of a trilateral collaborative model that involves family–school–community strengthens the foundation of home-based sports, establishes the core of school sports, and extends and complements community sports, thereby facilitating resource sharing and exploiting complementary advantages⁴⁵. This family–school cooperation model has a positive impact on adolescents physical fitness behaviors by guiding families in exercise and reinforcing supervision, evaluation, and incentive mechanisms for extracurricular activities. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

School sports are a crucial means of promoting adolescent physical activity, and their focus on sports directly impacts community residents awareness and engagement in physical fitness. By offering a variety of sports courses and activities, schools not only spark students interest in sports and develop their athletic abilities but also serve as a conduit to bring sports culture into families and communities, thereby enhancing the overall sports environment within the community⁴⁶. Moreover, the deep integration of schools with communities facilitates resource sharing; for example, opening sports facilities to the public during non-teaching hours enriches community sports offerings and improves accessibility. Schools can further ignite community residents enthusiasm for participation and reinforce the appeal of community sports by organizing events and activities⁴⁷. Ultimately, the synergistic collaboration between schools, families, and communities can collectively foster a vibrant sports culture. Thus, the following hypothesis is put forth:

Under the guidance of relevant theories, this paper constructs a theoretical model of adolescent physical exercise behavior (Fig. 2).

Theoretical model diagram of adolescent physical fitness behavior.